ORISSI
Orissi may well claim to be the earliest classical Indian dance style on the basis
of archaeological evidence, the most outstanding being the Rani Gupta caves of
the second century B. C. in Orissa. Scholars have dated these caves and their
carvings to be earlier than the writing ofthe Natyascistra. While there may be
some questions about the date ofthe caves, certainly the reliefs include the first
finished example of a dance scene with full orchestration. Whatever may have
been the dance style prevalent at that tune, it is obvious that the traditions
codified in theNatyascistra took cognizance ofthe particular regional style known
in eastern India. The Natyascistra speaks ofregional varieties, one amongstthese
is the eastern-southern style known as the Odhra Magadha style which can be
identified as the earliest precursor of the present Orissi.
The Udayagiri and the Khandagiri caves of Orissa are the first records in stone
ofthe historic period. Although it is not certain thattheywere contemporarywith
the compilation ofthe Natyascistra, there is no doubt that Orissa was the home
of many kingdoms, Buddhist. Jaina and Shaivite and others, between the
second century B. C. and the fifth century A. D. Recent excavations ofthe sites
ofRatnagiri and Lalitagiri have brought forth valuable archaeological evidence
which supports the view that dance or the dance image was as popular with the
artists ofthe Buddhist monuments as it was with sculptors ofUdyagiri, the Rani
Guinpha and the Hathi - Gumpha caves. In some door frames ofLalitagiri appear
dance figures in movements and poses which certainly establish a continuity
between the dance styles seen in Udayagiri and the later Orissan temples.
Although no full dance scenes ofthe Udyagiri type have come to light from the
finds of Ratnagiri and Lalitagiri, there are figures of Buddhist deities such as
Marichi and Aparajita, etc. who are depicted in dance pose.
The style of dance,
despite the difference ofthemes and cult exhibits a kinship with the sculpture
of the dance styles or the sculptural styles found in Sanchi. Amravati and
Nagarjunakonda. An affinity in regard to the treatment of the human body is
evident. Along side is the evidence in historical chronicles which speak of the
prevalence of the dance during this period. Travellers to India such as Huen
Tsang referred to the Buddhist Viharas in Orissa. These references are of the
general type. The archaeological evidence recently brought forth by Mrs. Debala
Mitra reinforces the descriptions in the chronicles. The history of Orissa
between the second century B. C. and the ninth century AD. is an interesting and complex amalgam of the development of different schools of Buddhism,
Jainism and what is today identified as Vajrayan Buddhism or Tantrie
Buddhism. Eastern India and the Himalayan Kingdom developed or perfected
many complex cults and sub-cults ofVajrayan. All these rubbed shoulders with
each other before the establishment of major Brahmanical cults namely first
Shaivism and then Vaishnavism. Although the Shaivite cults took strong roots in
Orissa in the seventh century A.D., their beginnings have to be traced back to
the fourth century A D. almost contemporary with the Gupta sculptures ofother
regions of India. We encounter here some of the first dance reliefs of the
Nataraja. One amongst these (recently recovered from a village ofAsanpat in the
District of Keonjhar) is ofspecial importance. It is an inscribed image of Shiva
with eight arms holding a veena, tiishulci and akshyamcila, a damruwith apataka
and a varada hasta. The inscription in Brahmi characters is ascribed to
Shatrubhanja, a king ofthe Bhanja dynasty who constructed shrines for Shiva.
Perhaps this image and the famous Nataraja of Nachna are near contemporary.
From the sixth and seventh century- onwards there is a massive evidence of
dance as part ofworship and presumably7 this dance inspired the sculptors ofthe
early7 medieval temples of Bhubaneswar. Within 300 years, nearly five hundred
temples were constructed, each a jewel of architecture.
The sculptures are like
inset gems adorning walls, lintels, portals, door jambs and ceilings. One of the
oldest surviving temples is Bharatesvara belonging to the sixth century A D.
Although now in ruins, this temple has a single relief which is of great
importance for the history of dance in Orissa. As part of Shiva’s marriage there
is an orchestra and a group ofwomen in a dance composition. A little later in the
seventh century7 was built the beautiful and impressive temple of Parsuramesvara. In the door lintels ofthis temple appear many7 scenes of music and dance
set vertically and horizontally7. Two ofthese show a group ofthree dancers, each
in a very distinct movement and y7et interlocked with each other. The panels in
the latticed windows are master compositions of movement arrested in stone.
Soon after were built important temples namely the Vaitan Deul and the
Sisiresvara. A perfectly balanced and harmoniously built piece of architecture,
its walls and lintels are covered every- inch with sculptures. Here women peep
out from windows, hide behind doors, are intertwined with trees, hold buds,
dance on animals and above all there is Durga and Shiva dancing. Judging from
the illustrations the sculptural reliefs ofthe temple ofVaital Deul and the image
ofDurga as Mahishasurainardini, now discomiected but kept in the centre ofthe
temple, it would appear that by- the eighth century-, dance had already- achieved
a very- distinctive stylisation in Orissa. Both the panels of Parasuramesvara as
also Vaital Deul exhibit Orissan school not only ofsculpture but also of dance.
Although the ardhamandali is basic, it is not identical with the ardhamandali of
the temples of South India or North India. The deflection of the hip and the
tribhanga is basic to each ofthese figures. Although the sculpture reliefs ofthe
salabhanjikas are similar to what we find in other parts ofIndia in terms oftheir
themes and motifs, the sculptural style as also the movements captured is
distinctively Orissan. These are masterpieces in stone, perfect like a beautifully composed poem. The Muktesvara temple, like the Parasurainesvara and the
Vaital Deni temples, is a masterpiece for its balance and proportion.
Here also,
there are a host of nayikas and nayikas on the walls ofthe temples. Outstanding
amongst all their reliefs are two on the ceiling. In one, there is Ganesha in a
dancing pose and in another a woman surrounded by a full orchestra The
sculptor captiues a most dynamic movement of dance in limited physical space.
The movement of perfectly balanced recital is impressive for its dance figures.
The story continues in the other temples of Bhubaneswar especially the most
exquisitely carved Raja-Rani temple and the impressive grand temple, the
Lingaraj. In these, there is a refining of techniques of execution of the
movements ofthe dance which had begun charmingly hi the first three temples
mentioned. Here too, there is an abundance of dance sculpture. There are the
gcincis of dance: there are the standing figures ofwomen, bursting out of stone,
pulsating with rhythm. There are the flying figures—the gandharvas and the
apsarcis. There are the full groups of dancers and there is the Tcindava of Lord
Shiva. A full and systematic documentation of all this corpus of sculptural
evidence in Orissa is clear proof ofnot only the permeation ofthe Shaivite cults
including that ofLakulisa but also of a very self-conscious understanding ofthe
movement of the dance. No matter where you look, there is a dancer or a group
of dancers who attract, allure and charm you. "Hie wide variety of the dance
image and the deities specially those of Ganesha, Devi and Nataraja, is
impressive. Some of these compare favourably with the depiction of the
Tandavci ofthe dance in Ellora and elsewhere. Far off in the Aurangabad caves
and in Ellora, the concept of Siva’s Tandava had inspired sculptors to make
massive reliefs. In Orissa, in the temples of Bhubaneswar subscribing to the
Shaivite cult there is an equally impressive array of the deity in the movement
ofthe dance. Equally important from the point ofview ofthe precise delineation
ofmovement, specially the position (sthancis), the primary movement (chciris)
and the cadences of movements (karccnas) described in the Natyasastra are
those ofKama or Devi. Here we find a prolific use ofthe extended leg (alidha)
or the uplifted leg ofthe cipakranta and of course the most popular ofthem all
the urdhvajcinu. There are a few examples also of the bhujanga trasita.
This
sculptural evidence of dance in the temples of Bhuvaneswar belonging to the
seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth centuries almost comes to a close around the
eleventh and twelfth centuries when changes take place in Orissa.
Now temples are dedicated to Vishnu. No matter how complex the beginning
may have been, it is clear that by the eleventh century A.D., there was the
emergence of a Vaishnavite cult distinctive to Orissa. Chodagandeva, a most
illustrious ruler, began the construction of the temple ofJagannath some tune
between the second half of the eleventh century and the beginning of the
twelfth century. He was followed by Anangabhimadev. Between these two rulers
was built the temple ofJagannath. a unique synthesis of all that had preceded
in Orissa including the tribal cults. Cumulatively, Jagannath temple at Puri was
not the only temple but it was the beginning of a new cultural movement in India. No part ofIndia remained unaffected by all that Jagannath temple stood
for. The temple itself was outstanding in its architectural plan, its sculptural
reliefs and its special hall ofthe dance called the Nat Mandir.
Although no definite date can be conclusively ascribed regarding the practice of
dance as an indispensable part ofthe ritual ofthe worship or the daily routine,
it is clear from chronicle records ofthe temple called Mandal Panji that it was
certainly co-terminus with the Jagannath cult. From the records it is learnt that
Devadasis were attached to the temples as elsewhere in India especially in
Kashmir, Bengal, Saurashtra, Rajasthan and, of course. Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Many inscriptions speak ofthe dancers who were dedicated to the deity Siva or
Vishnu and their socio economic organisation. This wide prevalence of temple
dancing and its technique, no doubt, inspired and influenced the carving of
sculptural reliefs.
All these temples between the seventh centuryA.D. and the twelfth century A.D.
are evidence ofan innerunderstanding ofdance and an attemptto arrestmoments
of dynamic movement rather than an execution of a static pose.
The temple of
Ivonarak crystalises all these trends into a magnificent and stupendous edifice.
Built round the middle of the thirteenth century, here was a masterpiece of
architectural design and an excellence in sculptural relief. Conceived as a chariot
or ratha on 24 wheels dedicated to Surya (Sim), the temple reverberateswith the
movement of the dance whether in relief or around the main shrine or the
Jagmohan or the Bhogmandap and most of all Nat Mandir. In the Vaital Deul
women in beautiful poses of charis peep through doors or grills, in Raja Rani
temple they pulsate with life emerging from stone almost like detached figures,
in Konarak they command the horizon as free standing sculpture. Monumental
figures ofmusicians and dancers, offlute and drum players dance as ifin the sky
and overlook the space of the earth and reach the ocean. These massive free
standing sculptures are in great contrast to the small and delicate wTork of the
dancers who are carved on the pillars of the Nat Mandir. The free standing
dancers on the roofofthe Jagmohan look atfree space; the carved dancers ofthe
Nat Mandir look at space circumscribed as if either they or then* companions
would come to life and commence a dance. The pillars punctuate the Nat Mandir,
the dancers in stone cling to the pillars almost ready to emerge. The horizontal
panels seem as they were marginal figures of a manuscript. Together hundreds
or thousands ofthese dimunitive dancers make an orchestration wrhich leaves no
spectator untouched or unmoved, with the silent harmony it vibrates.
This then is the sculptural heritage of dance in Orissa writh massive and
dimunitive dancers, some rough and bold, others delicate and intricate. All these
complement each other presenting a world of movement unparallel even
in Indian sculptural history. The movement ofthese dancers may or may not be
the self-conscious delineation ofthe movement ofthe kamas as in the case of the three South Indian temples mentioned in the context ofthe Bharatanatyam i.e.
Brihadesvara, Sarangapani and Chidambaram, but they are certainly a sensitive
recreation in stone ofthemovementofdance. Also atno tune they canbe mistaken
for anything but an Orissi style of dance.
The ParasurameswarTemple (eighth century), as has been mentioned above, has
a number ofsculptures in postures ofthe Tcindava dance. Later temples, such as
theVaital Deul, also have reliefs ofNataraja.The earlymedieval temples, especially
the Raja Rani Temple, contain on their walls many dance figures; indeed, these
figures can be classified into several categories. It has been suggested by some
scholarsthat the sculptors ofthese medieval temples, from the eleventh century
to the thirteenth century7, were merely trying to create an impression of the
rhythms of dance and were not illustrating, the actual movements of dance. A
close scrutiny, however, reveals that the sculptor was knowledgeable person
illustrating chapters ofthe Natyasastra, even ifin a markedly local style. Without
sacrificing the characteristic features of the region, the sculptor demonstrates
exquisitely how accurately a dance pose or a chari can be wrought in stone. In
these sculptures, we find portr ayed the charis w hich have been discussed in the
Natyasastra (Chapter IX). We also find that these temple illustr ations of the
most intricate movements are described in the chapter on the Karanas (Chapter
IV). By the tune of the Konarak Temple, the style had been set and a very7
distinctive method of body manipulation is apparent .
Manuscript Evidence
Due to many momentous historical developments in Orissa, although the
Jagannath Temple continued to be a great centre of many Vaislinavite Cults,
there uras little architectural activity7 or certainly not at the level at w7hich wre find
it either between the eighth and tenth century A D. or the eleventh and
thirteenth century. It wrould appear that from the fifteenth century onwards, the
artists canalised their energies into the wa iting ofmanuscripts, the illustrations
of manuscripts and the paintings on the w7alls of temples. Here, as elsewhere,
dance is a central preoccupation. It is fi om these earliest illustrated manuscripts
of Orissa and the w7all paintings in some ofthese temples that w7e realise that a
very special style of dance must have been the experience of the artist The
ardhamandali, the tribhanga, the chauka are as popular here as theywrere in the
sculptural reliefs. Alongside, of course, wre know7 that Chaitanya made Puri his
home and pilgrims thronged to Puri from all parts of India. Dancers came from
Andhra and Gujarat Devadasis called Maharis w7ere enlisted for the worship.
Many texts of dance w7ere wTitten: all these w7ere profusely illustrated.
An
examination ofthe illustrations ofthe manuscripts ofOrissa wThether these deal
writh architecture or sculpture or music or dance or are based on the poetic
composition ofJayadeva such asthe Gita Govinda or are illustrations oftheAmru
Shatak or Usha Parinayam, show's that these are rich in the motifofthe dance. A comprehensive study of the illustrations of dance in Orissan manuscripts
reveals the great fascination of the art for both the writer and the painter.
Some of these manuscripts deal distinctively only with dance. Chief amongst
these is the Ahhinaya Chandrika of Maheshvara Mahapatra. This is a detailed
study of the various movements of the feet, hands, the standing postures, the
movement and the dance repertoire. Included in these illustrations is the clear
depictions ofsome of the Karanas which can be grouped together as acrobatic
karcinas especially such as the sciktasya, chakramandala, gangavataran. Also
among these is the depiction of the movements described in the Natyasastra
as the Vishnu Kranta, Vrichika Kutila. In these illustrations, there is a
continuation of the style of dancing which we observed in the dance reliefs oi
the Nat Mandir of Konarak. The illustrated manuscripts of Orissan which deal
With Orissan architecture and sculpture are also filled with figures of dance.
Most important amongst these texts isthe illustrated manuscript Shilpaprakasha.
Although the present manuscript may be a copy or a recent reconstruction, its
contents certainly point at an earlier tradition. Here a full analysis is made of
the manner in which the salabhanjikas or the feminine figures called the alasa
kanyas are to be carved in the temple. Many subdivisions are made, the
architecture design is indicated both for the single female figures as also ofthe
Nataraja called the Natambar. The illustrations ofthe Shilpaprakasha reinforce
the evidence ofsculptures in the temple. Quite obviously, there was a very close
interaction between the designers, the executors, the theoreticians of dance
and sculpture, the creative artists, poets, sculptors, painters and dancers.
One other major source of evidence of the prevalence of Orissi dance or the
precursors of the style which we may call Orissi, comes from a rather very
unexpected soruce. These are the marginal figures of dancers in the Jain
manuscripts especially the Kalpasutra and Kalkacharya Kathas. Although
executed in Gurajat, these marginal figures showwomen hi poses and movements
which are distinctive to Orissi and are not seen in other styles of Indian
dancing.
In a famous illustrated manuscript of the Kalpasutra belonging to the
fifteenth century i.e. the Devasanpada Kalpasutra as also in another belonging
to Jamnagar dated 1501, there is a prolific depiction of the samapada, the
tribhangi and the chauka. i.e. the outspread grand plie position ofOrissi dance.
It is interesting to note that these manuscripts from Gujarat in western India
should have captured a style of dance, which was obviously practised and
popular in the easternmost part of India. However, when evidence of these
manuscripts is correlated with the other chronicler evidence especially trade
and pilgrimage routes, both from the Jagannath Temple as also the temples of
Western India, the phenomenon is not strange. From all these, one gathers that
there was a great deal of mobility between the west and the east. Many
migrations took place and according to some historians, there were groups of
dancers who wrere brought to Puri from Gujarat as also from Andhra.
In Orissa itself, there continued to be the depiction of the dance in Orissan manuscripts both in respect ofthe technique of the dance as also illustrations
of kavya and nataka until the nineteenth century.
Textual Evidence
The evidence of dance through sculptural reliefs and illustrated manuscripts
(i.e. the pictorial evidence) is further supported by evidence which is available
in texts on music and dance which were written in Orissa. We have already
referred to the manuscript ofAbhinaya Chandrika. In addition, there are other
texts (some published and some unpublished) which were written in Orissa
and which are convincing proof of the dialogue and interdependence of theory
and practice. An important text of uncertain date is the Sangitanarayan by
Narayan Dev Gajapati. One section of the text called nritya khand deals with
the dance. It follows the tradition ofSangitaratncikara It analyses the different
angas and upangcis: it first delineates the movements and then then* usage. It
speaks of the different types of eye and face movements and includes a list of
positions in place i. e. sthanci, the primary movement ofthe lower limbs i. e. the
charis; the cadence of movements i.e. the karcinas and longer cadences of
movement called the mandalas and the angaharas.
The writer finally also
attempts a notation of some Sanskrit and Oriya poems and indicates the raga
and tala. A close analysis ofthis nritya khand i. e. the chapter on dance in the
Sangitanarayan again convinces us of an intra-regional dialogue. The tradition
of Sangitaratnakara must undoubtedly have travelled to Orissa so as to enable
the writer ofSangitanarayan to base his wrork on the Sangitaratnakara. There
is little evidence in this text, howrever, of a clear identification of a style ofdance
wdiich wre can call Orissi. There are other texts, such as the Nritya Kaumudi and
the Natya Manorama by Raghunath Rath attributed to the eighteenth century".
This text describes a variety of dance; it also lists the macro and the micro
movements such as the angas and the upangas. The text although interesting,
is not very significant. It is important for its detailed list and references to other
textual material, despite the fact that it throwrs very little light on the actual
practice ofthe dance. More important isthe manuscript oftheAbhinaya Darpana
of Yadunath Sinha, perhaps written some time again in the seventeenth or
eighteenth century. Here many more technicalities are mentioned. A reading of
the text reveals that the wTiter wus acquainted with Bharata’s Natycisastra and
wras also acquainted writh the practice of the dance in Orissa. There is another
source of evidence in regard to dance in the manuscripts of Orissa; these are
the manuscripts which deal with the dance ofShiva. Many manuscripts describe
in detail the Tandava ofSiva, speaking not only ofthe theme ofthe Tandava i.e.
Ananda Sandhya etc. but also describing in detail the manner in which the
Tandava is to be executed. Some of these manuscripts do not follow" the
Natyasastra; instead they adhere to the tradition ofthe Saudhikagamas. Again
it is evident that there wras an interchange between Orissa and South India
because many of the descriptions of the Tandavas are reminiscent of the
descriptions which wre come across in the South Indian agamas. Historical Chronicles
Although we have made passing references to the rich body of the historical
chronicles available in Orissa, it is necessary to add that the Madal Panji i. e. the
drum chronicles ofthe temple ofPuri is the richest storehouse for reconstruct¬
ing the socio economic status ofthe temple dancers, the different categories of
men and women dancers.
There are vivid descriptions ofthe occasion, time, and
the ritual practices of the temple where dance was an essential part of the
worship. Apart from the Madal Panji there are other historical records and
chronicles which enable us to know that dance was an important activity both of
the temple milieu as also the cotut milieu Orissa. From this material two things
are clear; one thattherewere the temple dancers called the maharis who danced
inside the centre and outside the shrine; the fust group was known as the
Bheetar Gaonis and the other Bahar Gaonis. Besides, there were the Gopipuas
or theboy dancersinwomen’s garb who danced outsid e the temple. Thistradition
continued until the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century.
Creative Literature
The evidence ofsculpture, painting, chronicles, textual writing i. e. the manuals
and the treatises of technique has to be supplemented with a brief mention of
Orissan literature especially poetry and drama. Creative works allude to dance
in many ways. These references range from the descriptions ofthe dance in early
works ofOrissan literature such astheRamayana and Mahabharata, particularly
the Oriya Mahabharata of Saral Das written in the fifteenth century, the Dandi
Ramayana, written by Balaram Das in the sixteenth century and the Niladn
Mahodaya of Lokanath Vidyadhara ofthe seventeenth century. Many festivals
and dramatic recitals are mentioned here. More important than the series of
plays are the lyrics which are composed by great writers of Orissa ranging from
Ramanand Rai to Upendra Bhanjadev, Kavi Surya, Baladev Rath and others.
Most of this writing i.e. the dramatic w'orks, the narrative epic, the Chautisa
couplets, ofstanzas which begin with one of 84 consonants in consecutive order
belonging to the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, refer
to dance.
One may well ask the question what was the situation of both poetry and
literature as also the position ofthe dance prior to this. Not many literary w-orks
survive ofthe Shaivite tradition ofOrissa thatbelong to the eighth to the eleventh
centuries. The real history begins with the composition ofthe greatest work of
Sanskrit poetry, namely the Gita Govinda. Although scholars will continue to
debate whetherJayadeva came from Orissa or Bengal, there is no doubt that the
impact ofthe Gita Govinda wras not only instantaneous but deep and powerful in
Orissa.
It is significant to remember that the composition ofthe Gita Govinda
was almost contemporary with the construction of the Jagannath temple.
Wherever it was written, soon after its composition, there appeared commen¬
taries, transcriptions, translations and imitations ofthe Gita Govinda in Orissa. Some ofthe first commentaries on this great poem were written in Orissa. Most
importantwasthe acceptance ofthis poem as a text for worship in the Jagannath
temple. The kings of Orissa enjoined that the worship to the Lord will be done
through the singing ofthe Gita Govincla. Many stories and legends are prevalent
about the attempt made by some kings to replace the. singing of the Gita
Govinda by an imitation. The legends go on to narrate how the Lord refused to
accept the imitation and how the singing of the Gita Govinda was once again
firmly established as pail oftemple worship. An important Oriya inscription of
1499 A D. of Pratap Rudradev clearly mentions that the Gita Govinda alone
would be sung at the tune ofthe Bhoga ceremony. Some scholars have questioned
the use ofthe word Bada Thakur. While one may not go into the details ofthis
controversy, it is clear that no controversies could have arisen unless the original
was popular. About the same tune the great saint Shri Chaitanya made Puri his
home. It was perhaps through him that this poem received another lease oflife.
He identified himself with Radha or the Sakhi and the Gita Govinda was
transformed from a pure love poem or a devotional poem to a theological text.
The disciples of Chaitanya were zealous missionaries who travelled to all parts
of India and gave a new doctrinal turn to the Gita Govinda. Many lungs and
nobles, warriors and ministers were converted to this cult, gave up their affluent
life and became devotees and missionaries. One amongst these was Ramananda
Rai. who became a devout worshipper ofJagannath. According to the Chaitanya
Charitamrita, he even taught abhinaya to the devadosis or the maharis. He was
also an author of an important play called Jagannath Vallabh Nataka. This
Nataka or drama was presented in the precincts of the temple. There were
others who followed, such as the writer who called himself Jayadeva-II. He
wrote a work called the Piyush Lahari. This was patterned on the Gita Govinda
but did not restrict itself to three characters—Krishna, Radha and the Sakhi.
The drama was presented outside the temple.
The tradition of the singing of
the Gita Govinda, the abhinaya to the Gita Govinda, the dramatic version to
the Gita Govinda continued in Orissa for many centuries. Alongside was the
writing of plays such as the Parsuram Vijaya by the King Kapilendra Deva of
the fourteenth century. All these were also performed in and around the temple.
Other poets and lyrical writersfollowed Outstanding amongst thesewas Upendra
Bhanjadeo. His songs were popular throughout the countryside and his songs
wrere sung by all. It is not known wdiether abhinaya wras performed to them but
it is known thatUpendra Bhanjadev’s lyrical creations permeated Orissan society
at all levels. Other composers appeared on the scene; these wrere Kavi Surya
Baladev Rath Gopal Krishna Pattanayak and Banmalidas. While Kavi Surya’s
verses are full ofmusical melody lilting rhythms, Gopal Krishna’s diction is as
delicate as effective and Banmali’s poems are full of devotion. Kavi Surya
Baldev Rath like the poet musicians of South India of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, adorned the courts ofthe kings, wrote poetry wdiich wras
sometimes heroic, at other tunes delicately sensuous and colourful but always
full of technical excellence. A real human experience bursts out in his poems
where at one level, it is the love ofRadha and Krishna, on other it is the human love ofman and woman. His champu songs were also equally popular. They had
vigour, a touch ofwit and humour and he transformed the divine story ofthe love
ofRadha and Krishna into a more human level. The poems can be compared to
the Padams and Jcwcdies ofSouth India where also double and triple meanings
are inherent Also like the composition ofthe South Indian poets, each ofthese
songs can be set to a musical melody and can be danced. The verbal imagery has
immense potential for being rendered kinetically. Gopal Krishna Pattanayak had
greater poetic sensitivity and as a devout Vaishnav, he composed his lyrics as
offeringsto the Lord. He describesthe entire life ofLord Krishna from childhood
to adolescence.
He is as enchanted with the image ofthe motherYashodha asthe
poets ofSouth India, Dikshitar, Kshetrayya and others. UnlikeUpendraBhanjadev,
he alwaysremains at a high spiritual level because the love ofRadha and Krishna
for him is the love ofthe primordial sakhi, the woman ofthe Lord. His imagery,
his diction, his simple spontaneous manner endeared him to the dancers once
again. This became a rich source of the poetic material for the presentation of
Orissi dance. Banamali was like his predecessors but even more ofa devotee. He
is known to have become a sanycisi and many legends are prevalent about his
visions, the experiences he hadwith theLord. Banamali’ssongs are tight, compact,
almost like aphorism. They too are both stmg and danced. This tradition ofthe
compositions ofthe lyrical poetry of the stanzic words called the chciutisa, the
dramaticworks and the singing ofthe Gita Govinda, both in the original Sanskrit
and in its several Oriya translations continued well into the nineteenth century.
It will be clear from the above, that Orissi or what we recognise as Orissi
has a rich sustained history. We have not mentioned here the annual seasonal
cycle of festivities in and aroimd the Jagannath Temple which also provided
the opportunity for the performance of music and dance. As elsewhere in
India, but of universal popularity, were the festivals of the Dol Jatra, the Rath
Jatra, the Janmashtami and many others. Each provided an occasion for a
different type of presentation of music and dance. One last but most enduring
stream needs to be mentioned in this context. This is the rich and vibrant
tradition of tribal dancing in many parts of Orissa. The tribes, particularly
the Savaras, had an important role to play in the Jagannath cult. They were
not great musicians or dancers but dance was very much part of their life
style. These constituted the substratum on which all else was built. In rural
Orissa were many dance forms known to many communities. Both currents
were strong. At no tune was the link between these and dance associated
with the temples lost.
There was finally yet another stream which is relevant
for tracing the evolution of Orissi. This was the tradition of the martial
dancers, the pikes, the chadiya dancers. As in the case of Kerala and as we
shall see in the case of Manipur, the techniques of attack and defence
assumed an artistic stylisation which at certain moments did not distinguish
it from dance. The pike and the other martial dances of the militia
crystallized into what we recognise as mayurabhanja today. And last, there
was the strong tradition of Orissa as in Kerala of acrobatics. Artistic acrobatic movements ofgymnastics were executed byyoung boys and girls. In fact, thiswas
the continuation ofthe tradition described in the Natyasastra under the category
ofthe Karnas such as Chakramandala, Gangavatarana and Saktasya etc. Had
this tradition not been there, we would not have found the illustrations ofthese
in movements in temple sculpture and manuscript illustrations relating to Orissi
dance. All these multiple streams and the interaction of literature, sculpture,
painting andmusic, religious and tribal, rural and templemilieuwere determining
factors. From these many strands presumably emerged a dance style, a style
which could be distinguished from any other but a style which was not restricted
only to the temples or what one may call a sophisticated milieu ofthe courts. It
was connected to the world outside, the country life, to tribal forms, to martial
techniques, to dramatic performances, to operas, and perhaps even the puppet
plays. Itwas also equallystrongly inspiredbythe rich bodyofpoetryand literature.
Altogether, it was both worship within the temple and art and entertainment
immediately outside the temple.
What we recognise the Orissi dance today, is an attempt at reconstruction of a
dance form from all these fragments of the Maharis tradition of the Gotipoun
tradition, ofthe Bandhanritya tradition ofthe martial arts and Chhau tradition
known to Orissa, and the inspiration drawn fLom the sculptural reliefand pictorial
image. Thus on one level, Orissi is perhaps the oldest because ofthe sculptural
evidence, on anotherlevel, it isthe youngest, because itsrevival or its neoclassical
format emerged only in the 1950s of this century. After lying dormant or being
fragmented or certainly underground for sixty years or maybe a hundred, it arose
again as a new7 whole.
The story of the reconstruction of Orissi in Independent
India is parallel to the story of the reconstruction of the Bharatanatyam or the
revival ofthe Bharatanatyam in the 30s ofthis century. It is also parallel to the
new7 lease oflife which was given to Kathakali by the efforts ofPoet Vallathol in
Kerala. Inwhat is recognised asthe art dance ofOrissi, cognizance must be taken
ofthis historical background. Often people mistake the full recital on the stage
as an authentic unbroken continuation of an ancient past. In fact, it is the
reconstruction ofthe fragments available from different periods and millieus as
also the immediate and remote past.
file Technique
Despite all these knotty questions relating to Orissi, there is no doubt
whatsoever of its clearly defined technique. In technique, Orissi dance follows
the basic principles of the Natyasastra tradition and the methodologies of
movement delineation described in the Silpasastras of Orissa such as the
Silpaprakasha and the Silpasarani. Ittreatsthe humanbody in terms ofthe three
bhangas along which deflections ofthe head, torso and hips can take place. The
body is divided into two equal halves and the technique is built up on the
principle of an imequal division ofweight and the shift ofweight from one foot
to the other. Unite; ofmovement ofthe head, the torso, or the hips and the knees, are as important here as in the other classical styles of Indian dancing. The
characteristic feature of this dance style is a hip deflection which is almost a
taboo to other classical forms. The dvibhanga which is seen occasionally in
Bharatanatyam, is greatly emphasized here. The tribhanga which is rarely seen
in other classical forms, is one ofthe most typical poses of Orissi dancing. The
tribhanga ofthe Nataraja figure in South India is evolved by one halfoflower body
remaining static along the central plumb line while the other leg usually crosses
the first asin the karanas ofthe bhujangati'asita variety. The halfofthe body form
the torsoupwards deflectsinthe opposite directionwith thehead orneckproviding
the third deflection. In Orissi, the tnbhanga,a is achieved by a sharp deflection
ofthe hip from the horizontal Kati sutra, an opposite deflection ofthe torso, and
the head deflecting to the same side as the hip. What is known as the natavara
bhangi inOrissi dancing isthe familiar tribhanga ofthe Indian sculptured tradition.
Foot contacts are simdar to those in Bharatanatyam employing both the flat and
the toe-heel contacts. The toe touching the ground (kunchita) and the heel
stamping the ground (anchita) foot positions of the Natyasastra are used
repeatedly.
There is, however, a rare use of the combined toe-heel movement
characteristic of Bharatanatyam in the kuditta mitta sequences. Rather, there
are extremely complex rhythmic sequences based on the use only of the heel.
These movements ofthe anchita foot known as gothi in Orissa, are distinctive to
thatstyle. Apart from these differences in the manner offoot contact i. e. the use
of the toe, the use of both heel and a comparative absence of the toe heel
movement, there is also a difference in the methodology ofusing knees in Orissi
dances. On account ofthe deflection of hip in tribhanga position ofthe knees is
not in a complete outtumed symmetry. The lower limbs are not identical to the
ardhamandali or ukkarmandali of Bharatanatyam. While one knee bends
somewhat to the front and the toe ofthe foot faces the front, the other knee is
outtumed and die toes point. This is closest to the Vaisakha sthana of the
Natyasastra. The heels ofboth feet, however, meet. In contrast to Bharatanaty¬
am, the torso is bent to the other side, so that whde there is a terseness ofthe
lower half, there is a liquid lyrical flow ofthe upper body. The torso is used in
two sections, the upper and the lower. It is not used as one unit as in
Bharatanatyam. It is also not used completely as a figure of 8 as in Manipuri.
This manner ofusing the torso gives Orissi a distinctive kinetic style. The three
main positions from which movement emerges in Orissi are first the Samapada
i.e. the standing equibalanced equivated erect position without any kind of a
suggestion ofa frontal bend as seen in South Indian sculpture or Bharatanatyam,
the second is the tribhanga which we have described. The third and the most
important in a way is the chauka equivalent to the mandalasthana of the
Natyasastra terminology. Here the heels face the centre, the toes point outwards
and there is a distance of about two feet between the two heels. The knees are
out-turned, the thighs are bent. This is akin to the perfect grand plie ofWestern
ballet This chanka can be distinguished from the mandalasthana which is the
ORISSI 61
beginning position of a Kathakali dance on account of the maimer of the foot
contact. The Kathakali dancer rests hisweight on the sides ofthe sole ofthe feet:
the Orissi dancer places the feet flat with the entire sole in contct with the
ground. The square is the basic geometrical motif here, and from the square
emerge other movements whether they are half-circles, semi-circles or partial
figures of8.
Movement Patterns
From these basic positions, the movement technique is developed.
There can be
the possibility ofwalking in space, in different directions, in different manner and
at different levels. A set of terms in the Orissan text which are only partially
followed in practice referto themaimer ofcovering space. The most characteristic
amongst these is the semicircular walk or the covering ofspace by one leg more
specifically the calfin semicircles, returning back to centre. The other halfofthe
body is static. The same is repeated by other foot or leg. This is known as the
Minadandi i. e. covering space like a fish. There is then the manner of covering
space in circles, half-circles,semi-circles, and concentric circles. Thisis known.as
ghera. Theghera is somewhat akin to the chakra ofKathakbut not quite identical.
From the tribhanga positions emerge another group ofmovement. Again, one half
ofthe body is keptstatic along the vertical median, one knee continues to be bent
and the other leg is either extended to the side or to the front or to the back. It
can cross the static foot, at the back or the front: it can be elevated at different
levels and it can be totally extended at the backwith the knee bending or calfand
thigh in a straight line. Through a sitting or a kneeling position, another group
of movements emerge. The most characteristic amongst these is the extension
of one leg to the side or to the back, wrhile one foot and knee are in contact with
the ground. These movements arise out of the sitting position known by the
generic term baitha. Another group ofmovements emerge out ofbasic position
ofthe chauka or the mandalasthana. Here either movement can be in place i. e.
the feet can be static and only the torso can move or a complete pirouette can be
executed holding the chauka position. Weight rests on the bent leg and the free
leg executes a pirouette. .
The Orissa texts specially the Abhinaga Chandrika mention other types of
movements . Some are seen and practised, others have become obsolete. One
group amongst these is the group ofmovements called the charis. Perhaps the
charis of the Natyasastra tradition and the charis described in the
Silpasastras are nowtiere seen so clearly and concretely as in Orissi technique.
The Orissi technique has developed many single leg movements called the ek
pada chari or using both legs or the feet called the dvipada charis and
innumerable other ways of depicting the pose wdiich can be seen in the
sculptural reliefs in the Orissan temples.
The Silpaprakasha mentions 16 types
ofthe alasa kanyas, those that are indolent, those who hold lotuses, those who
hold mirrors in their hands, those wTeaing ketki Howlers, those playing on the drums, those who hold drums, those holding a child, or a fly whisk. In the
contemporary Orissi technique, many ofthese sculptural poses are repeated or
recreated. The dancer controls her body in the manner in which the sculpture
pose is held for a splitsecond only to get back into a series ofmovements termed
(as the bhramais are equally important). The sculpturesque quality of Orissi
dance is dependent on perfect execution of these charis. Another group of
movements termed as bhramaris are equally important. These are the spins or
the pirouettes. Pirouettes canbe executed in the tribhanga position, orthe chauka,
both clockwise, and anti-clockwise and of course they can certainly be executed
in the standing position. In short, pirouettes also emerge from the three basic
positions ofthe samapada, the tribhangi and the chauka. There are manybeautiful
names for the pirouettes depending upon the foot contact in the initial position
or the final movement or the level at which the knee is elevated or the direction
which the pirouette is made. There is the simple bhramari, a bhramari with a
jump therefore called an ut-pluta bhramari or an anti-clockwise pirouette called
viparita bhramari. There is also the bhramari called the antarbhramari. Here one
foot touches the knee ofthe other leg and a pirouette is executed. The movement
patterns of Orissi dance emerges from the positions, the manner of covering
space and the method of executing the bhramaris. .
Tliere are then the group of movements which may be called elevations, jtunps
or utpluta. There is whole group ofmovements in Orissi dance wherejumps and
hops are suggested and there is a lack of contact with the ground. .
Besides, these categories of primary movements and the manner of executing
them, there are the sculptural poses which are contained within the dance
techniques. From the tiibhanga can emerge many sculptural poses which have
been given different names some suggesting the types of heroines i.e. nagikas
others suggesting the type of movement i.e, half-bent, full-bent, etc. and yet
others suggesting an approach or mood such as nivedana. None ofthese can be
identified as with the Karanas of the Natyasastra because they are largely
descriptions of positions of place and direction of space.
These sequences of
movement in Orissi dancing are called bhangis or sometimes the thais. .
Hcistas: While Orissi dance like Bharatanatyam and Kathakali uses a variety of
hand gestures both in its technique of pure dance (nritya) as also abhinaya,
there are many significant departures from the tradition ofthe Natyasastra and
the Abhinaya Darpana. Many new names have been given to the same hand
gesturessuch asthepataka oftheAbhinaya Daipana, the tripataka in Kathakali
and dhvaja in Orissi. The ardha pataka with two fingers extended and two
infolded is called the danda. The kataka i. e. where the index finger is held over
the thumb and other fingers are extended, is called the ankush: many more
departures can be identified. However, most ofthe hastas despite the difference
in names, belong to Natyasastra, the Sangitciratnakara and the Abhinaya
Darpana. A rich vocabulary of technique emerges from this highly codified
ORISSI 63
system of the movement of feet, knees, torso, neck, head, arms, wrists and
hands. Further complexity is added into the dance style by exploring quick
change of levels which is not known normally either in Bharatanatyain or in
Kathakali.
The smallest unit of movement in Orissi is the khcindi’. The khandi is the
beginning of movement from either the standing position in the samapada or
the tribhangi or the chauka. Normally it is from the samapada or the tribhangi.
LLs in the case of Bharatanatyam here also the dancer begins her practice by
executing foot contacts right and left and through the manipulation of equally
distributed wreight as also tmequal wTeight. These very small clusters of
movements invariably begin with a static position and return back to the static
position. Normally, movements are executed first to the right and then to the
left. The dancer is taught to hold one half of her body static and to move the
other half either through the leg extension or leg contractions or through
crossing front or back. Later each movement is practised by relating to rhythm
effort, strong or soft. They are first executed in place always bearing in mind
the central axis (the vertical median) and distribution ofwreight. Next the space
is explored.
The khandhs are primary movements beginning with categories,
place, exploring space in all directions. Some are based only on the samapada
and tribhanga. Others combine samapada, tribhanga and the chauka. All are
executed to the accompaniment of mnemonics called ukkattci comparable to
the bols of Kathak and solukatta ofBharatanatyam. Later they are executed in
a given metrical cycle of four, five, six, seven, eight or nine beats. Further
refinement is brought into it by dividing say an eight beat cycle into different
segments. There can be 4, 2 and 2; or 3, 3 and 2; or 3,4 and 1. Each tune a newT
movement unit emerges. Arasas is the next unit comprising khandis comparable
to the formation of simple sentences through a combination of wnrds. The
student finally learns howr to use the phrases in a full line of composition in
varying permutations and combinations. The arasas can be enlarged like the
Ashtakalasam of Kathakali or the tirmanam of the Bharatanatyam. The
principle is the same, beginning wuth the smallest unit, combinations are made
ofwords and phrases and then sentences: all is contained within the periphery
or parameters of the metrical cycle. .
The nritta technique ofOrissa rests for its strength on a complete mastery over
the full gamut ofthe khandis and arasas which can then be used in sequences
ofthe dance called the belis and the palis. The belis are longer sections ofmitta
and the palis are the finale sequences also in triplets as in the case ofthe other
dance styles. The dancer has to master various aspects ofthe nritta technique
comprising the static positions, the sculptural poses, the manner of covering
space and has knowm how to manipulate the metrical cycle through the
articulation ofthe neck, torso and the movement ofthe lowrer limbs and to cover
space in different directions and to move along straight lines, diagonals, figures
of eight and spirals and to shift wreight and play with levels. Later she is also taught to control energy and to play with movement which flows out ofbody and
at other timesflows into the body. Thejuxtaposition ofstrong and softmovements
expanding and contracting, enlarging and dwarfing is characteristic. LikeManipuri,
Orissi gives the impression of a soft lyrical style, highly sensuous in form but in
fact it isrigorous and challenging for anyone who wishesto execute itwith control
and precision.
The balance ofstasis and dynamics is at the core ofthis style as
others.
The Repertoire
The repertoire ofOrissi can also be divided into the two broad categories ofnritta
and abhinaya and tandava and lasya. In fact, this is the standard pan-Indian
format for the dance especially those which we call the classical forms. In one
group ofnumbers, the dancer executes movements either only to the mnemonics
i. e. the bols or the ukuttas, recited by the mridangist or to a melodic line as in
the case ofSouth Indianjatisvara or to a more complex solfa passage or melodic
composition like the tarana of Hindustani music or tillcina ofSouth India or can
render through mime (abhinaya) a piece of poetry set. to music in a special
metrical cycle. In Orissi, the melodic compositions are the pallavis sung in a
typical orissi style: the poetry is drawn from Sanskrit and Oriya. .
Whatever mayr have been the beginnings ofthe Orissi dance or the nature ofthe
repertoire for dance performance within or without the temple, it is clear that the
number called bhumipranama wasfirstnumber. The presentformat ofOrissi may
be attributed to the pioneers ofthe reconstruction of oddem. The sequences of
niunbers of Orissi dance may- not have been in vogue earlier. At the present
moment, the beginning of all Orissi dance recitals is with the bhumipranama
obeisance to one’s chosen deity. Often this deity is the Vighnaraja or Ganesha.
A line ofpoetry is set to music, some pails ofits are in pure dance and others are
in mime and interpreted through gestures. Both the bhumipranama or the
Vighnaraja number are essential because without them there may notbe success
ofthe performance. The Vighnaraja puja or the Vighnaraja sloka is followed by
another number; this time of a ptue mitta number called batu. The batu is
mentioned in the Abhinaya Chandrika and is perhaps a dance number ofsome
antiquity. In some wrayrs, this is the most difficult number of this style as it
introduces the full gamut of the nritta technique. The dancer begins in the
chauka position in a slowr tempo: gradually sheworksthrough a series ofintricate
charis, bhangis, khandis or arasas to larger cadences of movements. The batu
nritya also wreaves kinetic pattern to a given metrical cycle. The sequences or the
phases ofthis number, or a combination ofvarious khandis or arasas resembling
the paranas of Kathak and the tirmanams of Bharatanatyam. .
Leg extensions in the kneeling position are characteristic so also are the
movements only on the heels, each movement, phase and it is normallyr in a
triplet This number if followed by an invocatory composition usually dedicated
ORISSI 65
to a particular deity of the dancer’s choice and is known as the Ishta devata
vandcina. Here the dancer can choose either a sloka from Sanskrit or Oriya
poetry.
This number is akin to the shcihdam of Bharatanatyam. It is largely in
line although there are short pieces of pure dance or nritya. .
From rhythm and pure sahitya, the dancer moves on to the swara pallavi,
where for the first time, a melody is introduced, which the dancer illustrates
through movement These may be combinations ofsound patterns in a raga, just
an illustration of the various notes of the musical scale. The swara pallavi is a
pure nritta number with an emphasis on hand gestures (hastabhinaya). When
it is executed in a very slow tempo it is called the illustration of the alap, but
it may also be executed in a medium or fast tempo. .
This is followed by numbers which are known as either the gitabhinaya or the
sa-abhinaya nritta. In these numbers, words are introduced and the poetic line
is sung in a particular musical mode. The songs are generally well-known
compositions of poets like Jayadeva, Upendrabhanjadev or Bamnali Das. The
dancer attempts to interpret, in a variety ofways, the meaning ofthe words and
to communicate the sthayibhava of the song. Each word, with its particular
nuance, is interpreted through the combined language of the hands, body and
face. This number gives a dancer full scope to present sancharibhava and is
analogous to the abhinaya and padams of Bharatanatyam, the padans of
Kathakali, and the bhajan or even a thumri of Kathak. Asthapadis of Gita
Govinda are a must in an Orissi recital. This is real test of a dancer’s
capabilities of abhinaya. Many heroine types (nayikas) are presented in this
portion of the recital and the measure of the dancer’s competence can be
judged from his or her ability to present successfully the many shades of
meaning contained in the words of the padas. .
The subject-matter ofthe literary composition (sahitya) to which the dance is
performed is mostly Vaishnavite, depicting man’s yearning for God. The
sakhibhava of the later bhakti cult is once again seen here. While the great
dancer lifts the apparentiy sensuous theme to mystical heights of dedication,
the average dancer can do no more than present the sensuous aspects. As in
the other dance styles, an Orissi recital ends on a note of pure abstract design.
Here it is the tarajan, a parallel to the tillana of Bharatanatyam. and the
Kathak tarana. The bols are sung and into them many intricate rhythm
patterns in pure nritta are woven.
In recent years the repertoire ofOrissi has been greatly enlarged and many new
compositions have been added, both in the nritta and the abhinaya portions.
A variety ofswara pallavis have been composed in the nritta portion, and the
final number is often the moksha or moksha nritya comparable to a tillana or
tarana. In the abhinaya section, compositions of Hindi poets such as Tulsidas
have been added.